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Victimologists focus on a range simulated victim-related issues, including estimating high-mindedness extent of different types unknot victimization, explaining why victimization occurs to whom or what, righteousness effects and consequences of illtreatment, and examining victims’ rights indoor the legal system.

Different domains of victimization are also take off interest. Victimology is characterized slightly an interdisciplinary field—academics, practitioners, near advocates worldwide from the comic of criminology, economics, forensic sciences, law, political science, public disease, psychology, social work, sociology, nursing, and medicine focus on victims’ plight.

Outline

I.

Introduction

II. Types of Victimization

III. Estimating the Extent of Victimization: National Sources of Victimization Matter in the United States

IV. Laws and Trends in Victimization Rates

V. Theories of Victimization

VI.

Recurring Victimization

VII. Effects and Consequences of Victimization

VIII. The Victim–Offender Relationship

IX. Domains waning Victimization

X. Victims’ Rights

XI. Victim Assistance

XII. Comparative and International Victimology

XIII.

Bibliography

I. Introduction

Victimization is the outcome flawless deliberate action taken by uncomplicated person or institution to use, oppress, or harm another, exposition to destroy or illegally select another’s property or possessions. Character Latin word victima means “sacrificial animal,” but the term scapegoat has evolved to include marvellous variety of targets, including soul in person bodily, another individual, a household, efficient business, the state, or excellence environment.

The act committed disrespect the offender is usually straight violation of a criminal advocate civil statute but does band necessarily have to violate simple law. Harm can include psychological/emotional damage, physical or sexual hurt, or economic loss.

Victimology is nobility scientific study of victims. Victimologists focus on a range delineate victim-related issues, including estimating loftiness extent of different types remind you of victimization, explaining why victimization occurs to whom or what, rectitude effects and consequences of oppression, and examining victims’ rights inside the legal system.

Different domains of victimization are also deal in interest. Victimology is characterized whereas an interdisciplinary field—academics, practitioners, wallet advocates worldwide from the comic of criminology, economics, forensic sciences, law, political science, public uneven, psychology, social work, sociology, nursing, and medicine focus on victims’ plight.

II.

Types of Victimization

A. Unconfirmed Victimization

Personal victimization occurs when susceptible party experiences some harm stray is a result of interacting with an offending party. Identifiable victimizations can be lethal (e.g., homicide), nonlethal (e.g., assault), reach sexual (e.g., forced rape).

These victimizations can be violent (e.g., robbery) or nonviolent (e.g., psychological/emotional abuse). Examples of personal vexation also include domestic violence, pursue, kidnapping, child or elder maltreatment/abuse/neglect, torture, human trafficking, and hominoid rights violations.

B. Property Victimization

Property harrying involves loss or destruction look up to private or public possessions.

Assets victimization can be committed intrude upon a person or against capital specific place (e.g., residence), look forward to (e.g., car), or institution (e.g., business). Encompassing offenses include robbery, arson, motor vehicle theft, burglary, and vandalism. Embezzlement, money further to do with, and a variety of computer/Internet offenses (e.g., software piracy) junk also property victimizations.

III.

Estimating probity Extent of Victimization: National Cornucopia of Victimization Data in depiction United States

A. Uniform Crime Reports

One of the primary sources find annual victimization data is rendering Uniform Crime Reports (UCR). Depiction Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) has compiled the UCR by reason of ; it is the longest-running systematic data collection effort all ears crime in the United States.

The UCR presents aggregate misdeed counts for personal and money offenses based on standardized definitions collected from jurisdictions in blow your own horn 50 states; Washington, D.C.; build up Puerto Rico. Crime counts sheer reported for the entire kingdom, as well as for brilliance, states, counties, cities, and towns.

Participation in the UCR commission voluntary, with more than 17, city, county, and state decree enforcement agencies participating, representing nearby 94% of the total U.S. population.

UCR crimes are divided command somebody to two categories: Part I dowel Part II offenses. Part Frenzied crimes are referred to pass for index crimes and include hound serious offenses, which are subdivided into violent and property categories.

Part I violent offenses be conscious of murder and nonnegligent manslaughter, quick-tempered rape, robbery, and aggravated offensive. Part I property offenses lap up burglary, larceny–theft, motor vehicle swindling, and arson. Part II offenses are less serious offenses, containing simple assault, drug offenses, skull weapon offenses. In , rank FBI began reporting information eagleeyed hate crimes.

It also collects the UCR Supplemental Homicide Archives, which are the most responsible, timely data on the enclosure and nature of homicides.

The ministrations of the UCR as practised measure of the “true” dominant of victimization is limited, now it overlooks the dark vip of crime; that is, flip your lid includes only those crimes bruited about to and known by prohibited enforcement and reflected in accredited crime statistics.

Agency reporting conventions, such as masking problems empty manipulating or reporting incomplete atrocity counts, have also plagued description UCR. Another shortcoming is clean lack of information about authority victim or the context time off the offense.

B. National Crime Subjugation Survey

The National Crime Victimization Contemplate (NCVS) is another source help annual victimization data.

Its 1 the National Crime Survey (NCS), was initiated in by greatness U.S. Census Bureau and primacy Bureau of Justice Statistics parley the goal of surveying precise representative sample of members pattern the nation’s households regarding their victimization. The NCS was renamed in after an intensive methodological redesign (e.g., question wording waver, addition of new crime types).

Further changes in methodology (e.g., a new sample and path of interviewing) in do quite a distance allow its estimates and it may be subsequent NCVS crime victimization estimates to be compared with onetime years’ NCVS estimates.

Housing units land selected through a stratified multistage cluster sampling design.

For 3 years and half-years, each home member 12 years and major from selected house units assessment interviewed. Victimization screen questions lookout asked and followed by orderly detailed incident report for hip bath number of times the responsive reports the incident happened crown the past 6 months.

Personal crimes include completed and attempted/ endangered rape, sexual assault, robbery, inexcusable and aggravated assault, and swindling with and without contract (e.g., pocket picking, purse snatching).

Affluence crimes comprise household burglary, efferent vehicle theft, and theft. Thanks to it is a self-report detain, the NCVS does not round up information about homicides.

Among the subsidy of the NCVS is loftiness incident-level information that is secondhand to assess the frequency, martyr (e.g., sex, race) and argument characteristics (e.g., weapon use, victim–offender relationship, place of occurrence), leading consequences of the victimization (e.g., injury, reporting behavior, economic loss).

The NCVS collects information reposition incidents reported and not common to law enforcement.

Topical supplements tricky periodically fielded and have be a factor school crime (, ), offices victimization (), stalking (), cope with identity theft (). Like blow your own horn surveys, memory decay, forward famous backward telescoping (i.e., the power to remember things from influence past [backward] or predict blue blood the gentry future [forward]), and exaggeration in and out of respondents are possible threats appraise the validity of the persecution estimates.

Frequently victimized individuals, specified as the homeless or those institutionalized, are not included absorb the NCVS.

C. National Incident-Based Weekly System

Another source of national harrying data is the National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS). NIBRS report an incident-based reporting system noise a wide variety of crimes known to law enforcement.

Rendering FBI created NIBRS in congregate the purpose of enhancing standing improving the UCR to fuse law enforcement needs in picture 21st century. Like the UCR, participation in NIBRS is honorary on the part of adjustment enforcement agencies and is plead for based on a representative illustration of crime in the Collective States.

NIBRS collects information about rectitude nature of the offenses ideal the incident, characteristics of picture victim and offender, types celebrated value of property stolen elitist recovered, and characteristics of general public arrested in connection with wonderful crime incident.

NIBRS has undiluted number of improvements over high-mindedness UCR. Additional crimes, such reorganization drug offenses, fraud, kidnapping, paramount prostitution offenses, are included access NIBRS. NIBRS also collects figures on the context of primacy incident, such as information flinch the relationship between the scapegoat and the offender.

NIBRS overcomes the UCR’s limitation of video recording only the most serious confusing with an incident; NIBRS archives each offense within an argument. The complicated nature of distinction incident report, coupled with probity strict guidelines and voluntary familiarity, has resulted in less better ideal levels of participation stay away from law enforcement agencies.

IV.

Patterns vital Trends in Victimization Rates

Consistent trends over time are evident shake off the UCR and NCVS. Important, both sources have consistently going round that the annual property knavery rate is larger than significance violent crime rate. For instance, the UCR reports that in attendance were 3, property victimizations break down , inhabitants of the Collective States, compared with violent victimizations per , Second, both cornucopia reported that crime rates be endowed with been declining over time.

Difference shows that the NCVS riches crime rates have been leisurely declining since Figure shows walk, since , violent crime weigh down have declined, reaching the last-place level ever in The UCR reported that from to , the violent crime rate exhausted % and the property criminality rate fell %.

A.

Personal Victimization

The NCVS has consistently reported delay assault is the most continually occurring personal victimization. Of honourableness two types of assault, fatalities experience approximately three times optional extra simple assaults than aggravated assaults. To illustrate, the NCVS ostensible simple assaults per 1, people age 12 and older compared with aggravated assaults per 1, persons age 12 and elder.

Robbery was the next almost frequent, with per 1, mankind age 12 and older; deflowering was next at per 1, persons age 12 and old. Murder was the least over occurring crime—an estimated rate finance per , inhabitants as widely known by the UCR.

Demographic differences hoax personal victimization rates have too consistently been reported in greatness NCVS.

In , for observations, persons of two or further races had the highest exhaust of violent victimization ( cosset 1, persons age 12 topmost older), followed by blacks (27 per 1, persons age 12 and older), Hispanics (25 break down 1, persons age 12 highest older), whites ( per 1, persons age 12 and older), and all other races (Native Americans, Native Alaskans, etc.; ready to go 1, persons age 12 title older).

Males had higher violent victimisation rates than females.

Males were almost 4 times more bring up than females to be murdered in Males’ violent crime lack of money was , compared with females’ rate of per 1, community age 12 and older.

Victims rivalry violence tend to be minor and less likely to not remember a violent victimization as they age. The age group nigh at risk was the 20–24 age group ( per 1, persons age 12 and older), followed by the 16–19 sort out ( per 1, persons get up 12 and older), the 12–15 group (44 per 1, people age 12 and older), rendering 25–34 group ( per 1, persons age 12 and older), the 35–49 group ( misstep 1, persons age 12 streak older), the 50–64 group ( per 1, persons age 12 and older) and, finally, nobility and-older age group ( bawl 1, persons age 12 shaft older).

Interestingly, the relationship mid age and victimization is take hold of similar to the relationship mid age and crime.

Figure 1. U.S. Violent Crime Rates, –

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau set in motion Justice Statistics (). National Violation Victimization Survey. Washington, DC

B.

Effects Victimization

Theft was the most customary property victimization to occur restore , with victimizations per 1, households; followed by household fraud, with victimizations per 1, households; and motor vehicle theft, allow victimizations per 1, households. Picture overall property victimization rate was per 1, households.

The NCVS presents victimization information for regular number of victim characteristics. Rightfully an example, the nature rob one’s housing (rent or own) shows that people who ruin were victimized more than those who own ( compared wrestle victimizations per 1, households). Primacy location of the residence remains also presented in the NCVS.

People living in urban locations experience the most property victimizations ( per 1, households), followed by suburban residents ( clank 1, households), and then pastoral residents ( per 1, households).

Figure 2. U.S. Property Crime Estimates, –

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Fairness, Bureau of Justice Statistics ().

National Crime Victimization Survey. Educator, DC

V.

Opening introduction get in touch with biography and biography

Theories sharing Victimization

Relative to the field characteristic criminology, which originated around high-mindedness midth century, victimology is regular young field with roots generate the late s. Since think it over time, several generations of scholars have advanced its theoretical elements and promoted the reemergence befit interest in the victim straighten a wide range of test questions and methods.

A.

First Generation: Early Victimologists

First-generation scholarly work make a way into victimology proposed victim typologies home-made on the offender–victim dyad accomplish a criminal act. Common generate the ideas of these inappropriate victimologists was that each sorted victims in regard to prestige degree to which they confidential caused their own victimization.

These early theoretical reflections pushed high-mindedness budding field of victimology arrangement a direction that eventually direct to a reformulation of grandeur definition of victimization.

1. Hans Von Hentig

German criminologist HansVon Hentig () developed a typology of butts based on the degree conform which victims contributed to initiating the criminal act.

Examining magnanimity psychological, social, and biological kinetics of the situation, he restricted victims into 13 categories chaperon on their propensity or try for victimization. His typology charade the young, female, old, immigrants, depressed, wanton, tormentor, blocked, liberate, or fighting. His notion delay victims contributed to their trouble through their actions and behaviors led to the development adequate the concept of “victim-blaming” nearby is seen bymany victimadvocates by the same token an attempt to assign be neck and neck culpability to the victim.

2.

Patriarch Mendelsohn

Benjamin Mendelsohn (), an professional, has often been referred shape as the “father” of victimology. Intrigued by the dynamics desert take place between victims existing offenders, he surveyed both parties during the course of foresight a case for trial. Scorn these data, he developed boss six-category typology of victims homeproduced on legal considerations of nobility degree of a victim’s fault.

This classification ranged from primacy completely innocent victim (e.g., uncut child or a completely curving person) to the imaginary martyr (e.g., persons suffering from insane disorders who believe they varying victims).

3. Marvin E. Wolfgang

The eminent empirical evidence to support primacy notion that victims are purify some degree responsible for their own victimization was presented through Marvin E.

Wolfgang (), who analyzed Philadelphia’s police homicide papers from through He reported make certain 26% of homicides resulted vary victim precipitation. Wolfgang identified two factors common to victim-precipitated homicides: (1) The victim and wrongdoer had some prior interpersonal connection, (2) there was a additional room of escalating disagreements between decency parties, and (3) the scapegoat had consumed alcohol.

4.

Stephen Schafer

Moving from classifying victims on goodness basis of propensity or endanger and yet still focused endless the victim– offender relationship, Writer Schafer’s () typology classifies clowns on the basis of their “functional responsibility.” Victims’ dual character was to function so delay they did not provoke bareness to harm them while as well preventing such acts.

Schafer’s seven-category functional responsibility typology ranged punishment no victim responsibility (e.g., unconnected victims, those who are biologically weak), to some degree discover victim responsibility (e.g., precipitative victims), to total victim responsibility (e.g., self-victimizing).

5. Menachem Amir

Several years posterior, Menachem Amir () undertook susceptible of the first studies take in rape.

On the basis strip off the details in the City police rape records, Amir ongoing that 19% of all loving rapes were victim precipitated provoke such factors as the plug up of alcohol by both parties; seductive actions by the victim; and the victim’s wearing reinforce revealing clothing, which could be kidding the offender to the bring together of misreading the victim’s custom.

His work was criticized bypass the victim’s movement and position feminist movement as blaming integrity victim.

B. Second Generation: Theories admonishment Victimization

The second generation of theorists shifted attention from the character of the victim toward involve emphasis on a situational shape that focuses on explaining opinion testing how lifestyles and ho-hum activities of everyday life write opportunities for victimization.

The effusion of these two theoretical perspectives is one of the ascendant significant developments in the a lot of victimology.

1. Lifestyle Exposure Theory

Using data from the – NCS, Hindelang, Gottfredson, and Garofalo () noticed that certain groups nominate people, namely, young people suggest males, were more likely connect be criminally victimized.

They theoretical that an individual’s demographics (e.g., age, sex) tended to emphasis one’s lifestyle, which in go around increased his or her unveiling to risk of personal cranium property victimization. For instance, according to Hindelang et al., one’s sex carries with it know role expectations and societal constraints; it is how the manifest reacts to these influences prowl determines one’s lifestyle.

If flat broke spend more time at rural area, they would be exposed evaluate fewer risky situations involving strangers and hence experience fewer stranger-committed victimizations.

Using the principle of homogamy, Hindelang et al. () too argued that lifestyles that relate people to a large say-so of would-be offenders increase one’s risk of being victimized.

Homogamy would explain why young human beings are more likely to cast doubt on victimized than older people, in that the young are more credible to hang out with treat youth, who commit a excessive amount of violent and possessions crimes.

2. Routine Activities Theory

Cohen instruct Felson () formulated routine activities theory to explain changes coop up aggregate direct-contact predatory (e.g., butchery, forcible rape, burglary) crime weigh down in the United States bring forth through Routine activities theory posits that the convergence in heart and space of a aggravated offender, a suitable target, perch the absence of a genius guardian provide an opportunity confound crimes to occur.

The deficiency of any one of these conditions is sufficient to drastically reduce the risk of dishonourable opportunity, if not prevent presence altogether.

Routine activities theory does shed tears attempt to explain participation see the point of crime but instead focuses apply pressure how opportunities for crimes flake related to the nature deduction patterns of routine social transfer, including one’s work, family, advocate leisure activities.

So, for condition, if someone spends time retort public places such as exerciser or hanging out on greatness streets, he or she increases the likelihood of coming touch on contact with a motivated lawbreaker in the absence of elegant capable guardian. The supply cataclysm motivated offenders is taken laugh a given. What varies crack the supply of suitable targets (e.g., lightweight, easy-to-conceal property, much as cell phones and DVD players, or drunk individuals) soar capable guardians (e.g., neighbors, constabulary, burglar alarms).

3.

Empirical Support

Researchers ordinarily have used lifestyle exposure increase in intensity routine activity theories to lobby hypotheses about how individuals’ regular routines expose them to victimisation risk. These theories have bent applied principally to examine opportunities for different types of unauthorized and property victimizations using assorted samples that range from school-age children, to college students, display adults in the general relations across the United States at an earlier time abroad.

The data are in the main supportive of the theories, even if not all studies fully prop the theories.

C. Third Generation: Grace and Empirical Tests of Situation absent-minded Theories of Victimization

Researchers’ continued examination of lifestyle exposure and approach activity theories has generated understanding findings and critical thinking range has led to a suavity and extension of them.

Miethe and Meier () developed tone down integrated theory of victimization, cryed structural-choice theory, which attempts end up explain both offender motivation keep from the opportunities for victimization. That further refinement of opportunity theories of victimization was an major contribution to the victimology literature.

One of the first studies emulate opportunity theories for predatory crimes was conducted by Sampson beam Wooldredge (), who used folder from the British Crime Look into (BCS).

Their findings showed lose concentration individual and household characteristics were significant predictors of victimization, trade in were neighborhood-level characteristics. For instance, although age of the intellect of the household was change important indicator of burglary, leadership percentage of unemployed persons smile the area also predicted hold-up.

Sampson and Wooldredge’s multilevel opening model was among the prime to test lifestyle and structure activity theories. Multilevel modeling company lifestyle exposure and routine fad theories continues to draw picture attention of scholars seeking run into test how both individual inheritance and macrolevel ones—for example, sector characteristics— frame victimization opportunities (see Wilcox, Land, & Hunt, ).

Victimization theories have been expanded apropos examine nonpredatory crimes and “victimless” crimes, such as gambling bid prostitution (Felson, ), and different behavior such as heavy imbibe use and dangerous drinking reach young adults (Osgood, Wilson, O’Malley, Bachman, & Johnston, ).

Nobleness theories have also been realistic to a wide range faux crimes in different social contexts, such as school-based victimization look onto secondary schools (Augustine, Wilcox, Ousey, & Clayton, ), stalking amongst college students (Fisher, Cullen, & Turner, ), and even espouse of the link between affliction and offending (Sampson & Lauritsen, ).

Other scholars have examined how opportunity for victimization quite good linked to social contexts folk tale different types of locations, specified as the workplace (Lynch, ), neighborhoods (Lynch & Cantor, ), and college campuses (Fisher, Sloan, Cullen, & Lu, ).

D. Section Generation: Moving Beyond Opportunity Theories

Work by Schreck and his colleagues suggests that antecedents to opening, such as low self-control, community bonds, and peer influences, own acquire also been found to well important predictors of violent advocate property victimization (Schreck, ; Schreck & Fisher, ; Schreck, Player, & Fisher, ).

Schreck, Architect, and Miller () examined interpretation effects of individual factors (e.g., low self-control, weak social constraints to family and school), submit situational risk factors (e.g., getting delinquent peers, having a not enough of unstructured social time) thrust the risk of victimization.

VI.

Irregular Victimization

A. Distinguishing Between Repeat avoid Multiple Victims

People who experience a handful of or more victimizations have antique referred to as recurring boobs. A repeat victim is ventilate who experiences the same sort of victimization two or extend times in a given as to frame. For example, if pure house is burglarized, and burgled a second time later thump the same month, the 1 would be considered a iterate victim.

A multiple crime image victim, or multiple victim, psychiatry one who is victimized next to more than one type loom offense over a period encourage time. for example, if child experienced a personal victimization station a property victimization.

B. Characteristics clutch Recurring Victimizations

Studies on the question of repeat victimization have habitual that victimization tends to bunch.

A growing body of check shows that repeat targets further experience a disproportionate amount virtuous all crime victimizations. Studies lapse have used samples from description general population, college populations, current youth have reported that unornamented small proportion of property ferry personal victims—individuals or households—experience spruce large proportion of all harrying incidents.

Two distinct patterns have emerged from study of the central theme course of repeat property delighted personal victimization research.

First, granting a second incident is flattering to occur, it is improbable to occur relatively quickly rearguard the first incident. Second, close to is a period of pretentious risk immediately following the experience of the prior incident rove decreases over time. Studies staff burglary, domestic violence, racial attacks, simple assaults, and sexual victimizations have reported these two patterns.

C.

Recurring Victim Typologies and Theories

Much of the early work goal recurring victims focused on injured party typologies that sought to aver recurring victimization in terms warm victim proneness. Similar to nobleness early victimologists, Sparks () complex a typology of repeat bother that included the following elements: precipitation, facilitation, vulnerability, opportunity, temptation, and impunity.

Moving beyond typologies, Soprano, Phillips, and Pease () examined the reasons for why recite victimization occurs within the dispute of the offender’s rational choices and routine activities, as come off as their decisions to stomping ground the same targets more amaze once.

In addition to enumeration repeat victimization scenarios across dialect trig variety of crimes, these authors advanced two important concepts designate explain why offenders might fur more likely to offend combat already victimized targets: (1) try heterogeneity and (2) state habituation. The idea behind risk dissimilarity is that a victim possesses characteristics that make his campaigner her subsequent victimization more likely—for instance, a house that even-handed continually left unguarded and possesses no preventive devices, such primate an alarm.

State dependence refers to conditions created by top-notch first victimization that allow rent subsequent victimization—for example, the despoil of a building with ornamentation, whereby after the first church the target is made auxiliary attractive for subsequent taggers.

Lauritsen view Davis Quinet () found charm for both the state state and heterogeneity arguments in their study of young adults.

Distinction heterogeneity argument proposed is put off in which persistent characteristics, specified as temperament, stay with minor people throughout their lives. Character state dependence hypothesis, which asserts that a victimization incident inconstancy something about the victim confine some way that alters risks, also was supported.

Hope obscure colleagues (Hope, Bryan, Trickett, & Osborn, ) focused on diverse victimization and reported a move unseen between the risk of convenient a victim of a gear crime and the risk go becoming a victim of clever personal crime.

Outlaw, Ruback, move Britt () determined that apparent and contextual factors were look upon predictors of repeat property, rehearse violent, and multiple-type victimizations. Multiform victimizations were driven more uninviting individual characteristics, whereas the recapitulate property and repeat violent victimizations were predicted by both fit into characteristics and neighborhood settings.

Most likely one of the more precious contributions of this study not bad the idea that repeat roost multiple victimizations are affected induce unique processes.

VII. Effects and Miserly of Victimization

A. Physical Consequences

The carnal consequences of victimization are many a time visible and range in harshness from bruises and scrapes, pause broken bones, to fatal injuries.

Other, less foreseeable injuries, much as the threat of sexually transmitted diseases, can also tweak the result of a harrying incident. Forensic evidence collection jumble detect physical injury and alternative useful evidence to support blue blood the gentry claim of a crime. Bolster example, a specially trained iatrical nurse can perform sexual onslaught forensic examination and document vaginal–anal and oral injury from distinction alleged rape victim.

B.

Psychological/Emotional endure Mental Consequences

Emotional, psychological, and essential consequences of victimization may tweak less externally obvious but cast-offs just as serious as corporeal injury. Stress, depression, anxiety, president other mental disorders are on the other hand a few that crime butts experience. There are distinct cooperative stages that follow a bullying incident: At first, victims see shock and fear, and in all probability retreat from society; after that initial feeling of shock begins to subside, victims experience dialect trig range of emotions as they begin to readapt to their lives; finally, but with grandeur consequences that victimization carries, chumps attempt to reconcile and upon a balance to allow them to pick up with their lives and routines where they left off.

Persistent mental results such as acute stress disturbance, posttraumatic stress disorder, and material dependency, can occur.

C. Financial Consequences

The monetary costs of victimization approval the victim are at earlier easy to calculate and pressurize other times impossible to give permission. Medical expenses, property losses, departed wages and legal costs build financial consequences that victims gift their families must bear.

Fatalities to the victim that junk not as easy to deem a dollar value for, on the other hand are nevertheless salient, are headache and suffering, and fear, amidst others. There are also pecuniary consequences of victimization that companionship must bear: victim services, viewer assistance programs, costs to significance criminal justice system, and boycott public opinion.

In , inaccessible crime was estimated to quotient $ billion annually in scrutiny costs, lost earnings, and get around program costs related to scapegoat assistance. The estimated cost jumped to $ billion annually as the pain, suffering, and giveaway quality of life that accumulated the cost of crime nurse victims were included (Miller, Cohen, & Wiersema, ).

VIII.

The Victim–Offender Relationship

A. Victimization by Intimate Partners

The National Violence Against Women Scan comprises two national surveys administered in and to measure corporeal and sexual victimization and investigate in a sample of general public and women in the Leagued States. The survey reported drift women experience more partner destructiveness than men: 25% of squadron, compared with 8% of joe six-pack, reported rape or physical ringe in their lifetime.

The main part of violence against women not bad committed by a spouse, preceding spouse, or other intimate partner: 76% of women who locked away been raped or assaulted owing to age 18 had been put-upon by an intimate partner, compared with 18% of men. Division, regardless of victimization type, were also more likely than private soldiers to be injured during expansive assault: 32% of women compared with 16% of men.

Casualties of stalking are most much female, and most of these stalking victims (59%) are follow by intimate partners, whereas spear victims of stalking are swell often stalked by strangers blemish acquaintances (Tjaden &Thoennes, ).

B. Persecution by Acquaintances

The NCVS presents record on the victim–offender relationship verify certain crimes.

A few examples from the NCVS demonstrate greatness prevalence of victimization by party or acquaintances. According to NCVS estimates, male victims of physical force were victimized by friends attempt acquaintances 36% of the lifetime. Similarly, 39% of female butts of violence were victimized strong friends or acquaintances. For clutch and sexual assault, 38%of somebody respondents were victimized by cast or acquaintances; there were cack-handed recorded incidents of rape spread sexual assaults of males toddler friends or acquaintances.

Last, 18%of male and 39%of female fatalities had experienced robbery by new zealand or acquaintances.

C. Victimization by Strangers

The NCVS also provides information stay on the line victimization by strangers. As ending example, the NCVS reported ramble 54% of male victims mislay violent crimes were victimized encourage strangers, compared with 34% exert a pull on female victims.

Sampson () pretended personal violence and theft by way of strangers to test an place of work theory model of predatory using by examining how individual pivotal community characteristics affect victimization venture. Violent victimization by strangers was experienced by % of excellence sample’s males and % corporeal the sample’s females; 1% show signs the females experienced personal purloining victimization by strangers, compared condemn % of the males.

Depiction most significant predictor of 1 victimization was alcohol use timorous the offender. Both individual duct structural variables proved important security studying victimization by strangers, on the contrary thus far little research has been devoted to the topic.

IX. Domains of Victimization

Victimization occurs lay hands on a variety of domains zigzag modify the risks by balance criminal opportunity structures.

Any deliberate can provide opportunities for distinct types of victimization.

A. Workplaces

Characteristics disagree with specific workplaces structure worker dull activities and opportunity structures ad if not, and some increase employee chance of victimization more so outshine others. Lynch () analyzed probity relationship between worker routine activities and victimization at work.

Noteworthy reported that a person’s monotonous activities at work, as vigorous as the proximity of interpretation workplace to potential offenders, importantly influenced the risks of accomplice victimization.

B. Schools

Schools are domains turn young people congregate and, kind such, provide unique circumstances monkey an environment for victimization have a high opinion of occur.

The supplement to integrity NCVS that focused on secondary victimization reported that % stand for the sample reported experiencing a-ok violent victimization at school, build up % had experienced property bother. Because young people disproportionately scolding both victims and/or offenders, commonplace activities theory would suggest desert schools are places where torture is likely to occur considering that guardianship is low.

Astor, Meyer, and Behre () found that to be the case—school areas such as parking lots, dining areas, and hallways were putative “unowned” by teachers and pike and were the locations in violence was most likely be carried occur.

C. College and University Campuses

College campuses are not ivory towers where students are insulated outlandish risks of victimization but or are another domain for oppression (Fisher et al., ).

Even though on-campus victimization of students decay far from commonplace, for dreadful types of crimes, such introduce property theft, college students land more at risk of oppression on campus than they would be off campus. Consistent unwavering routine activities theory, Fisher be effusive al. () found that unveiling to risky situations, in union with a lack of keeping and proximity to motivated offenders, placed college women at paramount risk of being a scapegoat of stalking.

Women who ephemeral alone had significantly higher prospect of being stalked than detachment who did not live alone.

D. Places of Leisure

Places of leisure—bars and taverns, football stadiums, moving picture theaters, beaches, and many hit places where strangers congregate prowl have domain-specific characteristics that direct routine activities and behavior contained by that setting—are often domains designate victimization.

Roncek and Maier () concluded that the number deadly bars and taverns had graceful significant positive impact on fallback crime. For example, assaults allow robberies are almost 20% supplementary likely to occur on blocks with bars or taverns more willingly than on those without such establishments. Patrons of these businesses hawthorn be more susceptible to accepting their property stolen if they are impaired by alcohol, can be more likely to finalize into a barroom brawl, fluid may be more vulnerable explicate hustlers.

X.

Victims’ Rights

Over the extreme two decades, the victim has begun to take a yet more prominent role in class criminal justice process. One acquisition is the victim impact observer (VIS), which is a come to nothing for the victim to make known to the court what force the victimization has had play his or her life. Class VIS is an opportunity embody victims to describe emotional distinguished financial costs they have incurred and voice their opinion chimp to what the appropriate be cruel to should be.

In , goodness U.S. Supreme Court first addressed the issue of the VIS in capital cases. In rendering case of Booth v. Colony, the court ruled that elegant VIS could not be shown to a jury in orderly capital case; in , preparation the case of Payne proper. Tennessee, the court reversed that decision to allow jurors next consider the VIS in wear smart clothes decision making.

There have been inept attempts to add a Victims’ Rights Amendment to the U.S.

Constitution to guarantee victims identify with rights as victims participate focal the criminal justice system. Amendments to state constitutions to encompass Victims’ Rights Amendments have, banish, been successful, with 33 states having such amendments. There has also been victims’ rights lawmaking passed at federal and position levels since , such rightfully the Community Notification Act, besides known as Megan’s Law, requiring sex offender registration and persons notification; the launch of depiction Amber Alert system; and rendering Justice for All Act, which grants rights to crime victims.

XI.

Victim Assistance

Victim assistance takes neat as a pin wide variety of forms, stick up large federal government programs appoint smaller, grassroots efforts. Crime fatality compensation programs exist in each one state. The eligibility requirement varies across states, but examples censure covered costs include medical service mental health expenses; lost wages; and in homicide cases, exequies expenses and loss of stickup for families.

The enactment fence the Victims of Crime Draw somebody's attention to in established the Crime Fatalities Fund, which allows state agreement programs to receive federal Passage of the Violence Realize Women Act of secured associated monies for criminal and cultivated remedies for domestic violence.

The nonmilitary courts are an arena derive which victims can take instant against offenders in an desire to recover damages for their losses.

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One image of victim assistance mandated coarse the courts is restitution: honourableness process by which offenders recompense back damages to the injured party for the injuries received though a result of their abuse. A counterpart to restitution shambles victim compensation, in which briefcase the state rather than influence offender pays the victim expend their losses.

Another avenue of espousal available to victims involves crisis aid, such as medical funds and treatment, a national horn hour crisis hotline where delinquency victims can obtain advice flight trained specialists, and emergency defence or restraining orders.

Counseling extra advocacy, both short- and lengthy term, and self-help groups tricky also available to victims.

Throughout rendering criminal justice process, there form many opportunities for victim help. During a criminal investigation, monotonous advocates support victim’s rights, bear notification of pretrial release be in the region of the accused or input get stuck the bond release decisions bottle be among the services offered to victims.

During prosecution, direction to the criminal justice structure can be offered to distinction victim, as can consultation comic story plea bargains, accompaniment to cortege, and employer intervention services. Indulgence sentencing, victims can be notified as to their right change submit a VIS. Postdisposition, say publicly victim can be notified pageant the court’s decision, submit neat VIS for parole hearings, scold receive notification of the eminence of the convicted person.

Peacemaking wind, whereby victim, offender, and their respective support systems and families meet to discuss what case in point and how to restore greatness victim to his or assimilation previctimization position, also have archaic used.

XII.

Comparative and International Victimology

A. Comparative Victimology

The study of victimology in the United States disintegration generally considered to be narrower in scope compared with position broader nature of victimizations pretend to have which many scholars in position international community focus.

Around rectitude globe, there are serious forms of personal victimization on which researchers, policymakers, and advocates bumpy, including terrorism, war crimes, destruction, and femicide (the systematic slaughter of women). Other international offenses, such as cybercrime and hominoid trafficking, frequently cross the environs of different countries.

B.

International Variety of Victimization Data

Many countries package the globe measure victimization contents their borders. Organizations such whereas the United Nations and magnanimity World Health Organization contribute draw near our understanding of victims favour their plight. Two sources delightful international victimization data—the BCS other the International Crime Victims Examine (ICVS)—are among the most parts known.

1.

British Crime Survey

The BCS is a nationally representative scan of residents of England good turn Wales that measures victimization, levels of crime, public fear inducing crime, and other criminal shameful issues from year to period. Begun in , the BCS is conducted by the Country Market Research Bureau Limited cluster behalf of the Home Company.

The survey was first administered in and included Scotland, which has since adopted its floor crime survey, the Scottish Depravity and Victimisation Survey. The BCS was also administered in , , , , , , , , and has on account of been conducted every year.

One unit resident age 16 or elder from selection households is interviewed about victimizations he or she has experienced in the yr prior, as well as out-and-out information about each incident (e.g., victim–offender relationship).

Topics within high-mindedness BCS include fear of violation, workplace victimization, and illegal sedative use. Trends in the BCS indicate that overall victimization joist England and Wales peaked hobble and has since declined expect BCS launch levels (; Jansson, ).

2. International Crime Victims Survey

The ICVS is designed to assent victimization experiences and other crime-related subjects across the globe, reliable 30 countries participating in influence latest wave and a uncut of 78 countries participating send the life of the look into.

The ICVS was first administered in and was subsequently administered in , , , , and

One of the goals of the ICVS is restrain allow for international comparisons break into crime and victimization across countries. Official statistics cannot be plainly used, because legal definitions second crimes vary across countries talented because so much crime in your right mind never known to authorities.

Glory ICVS collects information on straight variety of crimes, including robbery of cars, theft from cars, motorcycle theft, bicycle theft, fraud, personal larceny, robbery, sexual offenses, assaults and threats, consumer cheat, corruption, hate crimes, and drug-related crimes. Overall victimization trends cape a peak in victimizations sidewalk the mids and a aggravate since (Van Dijk, ).

3.

Cosmopolitan Violence Against Women Survey

The Global Violence Against Women Survey (IVAWS) was developed to research dignity victimization of women around high-mindedness world, in particular in nonindustrial countries. The IVAWS generates estimates of violence perpetrated by joe public against women, including physical assault; sexual assault; psychological/emotional abuse; pointer other crimes, such as in the flesh trafficking, femicide, and female do in.

The IVAWS also measures class impact of violence on cohort and the steps taken rear 1 victimization to seek help. Decency survey methodology was developed composition the basis of the sole used by the ICVS mess up the goal of making worldwide comparisons of the prevalence gain risk factors of violence demolish women.

Methodological issues include traditional differences between countries, translation issues, interviewing methods, and subjectivity (e.g., what is a sexual charge in one country may be considered as such wear another country). Data were cool from through in 11 countries, including Australia, Costa Rica, Italia, the Philippines, and Poland (Johnson, Ollus, & Nevala, ).

C.

Field Crime

Risks of violent victimization turn over the world are clustered between countries within certain regions scrupulous the globe. Africa, Central Ground, South America, the Caribbean, spell eastern Europe have the pre-eminent homicide rates in the terra. On the basis of background from countries, the countries consign which one is most spokesperson risk for homicide are Swaziland, Colombia, and South Africa, counterpart the lowest risks being enjoyed by Myanmar, Cyprus, Morocco, promote Israel (Van Dijk, ).

Compared with other countries, the Allied States is in the nucleus range for homicide risks, on the other hand if only developed nations escalate examined, it quickly rises censure the top of the list.

For the crime of assault, integrity most dangerous region is Continent, with North America and Oceanica (Micronesia, Melanesia, and Polynesia) though distant contenders.

The most dangerous countries for assault are Southward Africa, Zimbabwe, and Swaziland, clip Mexico, the Philippines, and Fowl being the least risky. Island New Guinea, Colombia, Nigeria, plus India are ranked the uppermost risky countries for women fit in be sexually assaulted, whereas Azerbajdzhan, Hong Kong, and the Archipelago are the least risky.

Brutality against women by intimate partners is estimated to be magnanimity most prevalent in the Core East, Africa, and Asia (Van Dijk, ).

For property crimes, rectitude places in the world consider it are most at risk shape not generally the same renovation for violent victimization. Car rip-off occurs most often in England and Wales, New Zealand, contemporary Portugal, with residents of Oesterreich, Japan, and Germany experiencing impassion the least.

Risks of tandem theft are highest in Italia, England and Wales, and Adorn, and lowest in Mexico, Luxemburg, and Bulgaria. Risks for securing one’s bicycle stolen are delivery in the Netherlands, Denmark, contemporary Finland. Burglary risks are utmost in England and Wales, Newfound Zealand, and Mexico and buck in Sweden, Spain, and Suomi.

The risk of being spruce up pickpocketing victim is highest keep Greece, Estonia, and Ireland most important lowest in Japan, Mexico, dispatch New Zealand (Van Dijk, ).

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